Crises in Berlin and Cuba

The Bay of Pigs:

Fresh into his administration, young president Kennedy was forced into action when he was notified of a clandestine operation planned by President Eisenhower to overthrow the dictatorship in Cuba. This invasion, now known as the “Bay of Pigs” fiasco, consisted of over 1,400 Cuban Exiles, trained by the CIA in the United States, in a desperate attempt to overthrow an unsavory tyrant, Fidel Castro.

The initial plan for the operation consisted of several air assaults and deception flights by the American Air Force against several Cuban airfields and military hotspots. Among the bombed targets were the airfield at San Antonio de los Banos and the Antonio Maceo International Airport at Santiago De Cuba. Shortly after the air raids, the principal invasion was supposed to commence. On the 17th of April, 1961, two CIA agents headed a force of four transport ships, laden with Cuban exiles, into the Bay of Pigs. This invasion did not go as planned, however, when the Cuban militia discovered the invasion force and alerted the rest of the Army. After several days of brutal fighting, over 200 of the Cuban exiles were killed and about 1,201 were captured. These casualties compromised the majority of the invasion force. The injuries done to the Cuban army, on the other hand, were much more extensive; between 4,000 and 5,000 militants and armed civilians were killed, missing, or wounded. This crisis was humiliating both politically and physically to the White House, especially to young President Kennedy. However, he chose to accept responsibility for his wrongdoings and this candor essentially saved him from a major public relations nightmare. In fact, he remarked, "The more I screw up, they more the American People love me."

The Berlin Wall:
The months after World War II had left the people of Germany devastated. Their economy was broken, their government strictly controlled by the Allies, and their capital was split in four. The four sections of Berlin were controlled by the Russians, Americans, the British, and the French. To make steps towards peace, the U.S., France, and Great Britain decided to unify their respective "zones" into one area they called West Berlin. The Russian zone therefore became known as "East Berlin". While they were supposed to be equal, in both money and power, conditions in East Berlin could not have been more different than those in its counterpart. An exceedingly high number of refugees fled from East to West Berlin as Russia, in need of more resources to fund its own reconstruction, stripped East Berlin of everything valuable and sent it back to the Motherland. Talks about unifying Germany were stonewalled by the Russian Premier Nikita Kruschev and the American President Kennedy.

In a bold move, Kruschev ordered his armed forces stationed in Berlin to shut down all border crossings between East and West Berlin and to not allow any refugees without express consent from the Russian government to pass.

"The presence in Berlin of an open and essentially uncontrolled border between the socialist and capitalist worlds unwittingly prompts the population to make a comparison between both parts of the city, which unfortunately, does not always turn out in favor of the Democratic [East] Berlin." - Soviet East German ambassador Mikhail Pervukhin

The above statement was given by the Russians as the premier reason as to the lockdown. Several days later, in October 1961, Soviet and American tanks converged on a German border crossing checkpoint known as "Checkpoint Charlie". The crisis began when West German border officials disputed the East German officials' right to inspect the papers of an American diplomat crossing over into East Germany. While aggression was high, the standoff ended peacefully on October 28,1961.

Nevertheless, the Berlin Wall was increasingly fortified. It went from a simple barbed wire fence to an enormous monstrosity of concrete and brick, constantly guarded by East German border control officials, armed with automatic rifles. However, people did try and escape. It has been rumored that there were over 5,000 Escape attempts, each growing increasingly more elaborate than the previous one. A particularly famous escape attempt consisted of a modified sports car driving under a metal bar placed across the road to prevent people speeding. The drivers simply lay flat and kept on driving as the metal bar took off the windshield and the roof of the car. Up to four people could escape in such a fashion.

The Berlin Wall was not torn down until after a particularly poignant speech by President Reagan at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin. President Reagan commented:

"We welcome change and openness; for we believe that freedom and security go together, that the advance of human liberty can only strengthen the cause of world peace. There is one sign the Soviets can make that would be unmistakable, that would advance dramatically the cause of freedom and peace. General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization, come here to this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!" - President Reagan

-- Alex Doundakov

The Other America

Millions of middle-class white Americans left cities for the suburbs in the 1950's, isolating themselves from other races, and classes. This act became known as the "white flight." Meanwhile, the rural poor began entering cities, causing cities to lose taxes, and business, and eventually leading to the fact that they couldn't properly maintain schools, transportation, police, and other common facilities. Poverty grew rapidly in the United States.

Slums were crowded with African Americans, Native Americans, and Lation's. The National Housing Act of 1945 was passed to help with urban renewal. This meant that tearing down rundown neighborhoods and replacing them with low-income housing would be the solution to getting every family a suitable home. Most people only moved from one ghetto to another though, and many call it urban removal instead.

The braceros program began in 1942, trying to allow Mexican's to go into the United States in order to harvest crops. However, once the employment ended, many remained in the US illegally, and an large additional amount arrived too, in order the escape the poor conditions of Mexico. Later, after Texas refused the burial of Mexican American World War II hero, Felix Longoria, the Mexican American verterans organized the G.I forum. Meanwhile, activist Ignacio Lopez founded the Unity League of California to help register voters, and give support to those who may help their interests.

In 1934, the Indian Reorganization Act moved to Native American autonomy, since the Native Americans were still named as 2nd class citizens. The National Congress of American Indians was later formed in 1944, to ensure civil rights, and enable Navies on reservations to keep their customs. Later in 1953, the termination policy eliminated federal economic support, discontinued the reservation system, and distributed tribal lands among individual Americans. The Indian Affairs began a program to help Natives settle in the cities. Poor training, and racial prejudice prevented them to find jobs though. 

Alger Hiss and the Rosenbergs

After the end of World War Two, the United States and the Soviet Union were the new two world powers, but because of their difference in governing and their economic systems, the alliance that led them to unite against the Axis powers collapsed.The U.S. was a democracy, supportinga free market, so of course the Americans were afraid from the great power that the Soviet communist dictatorship had and also from Stalin’s ambition to spear communism in the World.After communism took over China and North Korea, the American Government and the public opinion became so afraid of the possibility that Marx’s idea could develop also in the United States itself. So in the early 1950's, the Congress approved two pieces of legislation; the International Security Act, also known as the McCarran act (1950).The purpose of this act was to punish the people who were suspected to holding radical believes, such like attempting to turn the U.S. into a dictatorship.Even though President Truman vetoed the bill, Congress over road the veto and made it law.The big fear of communism and the very hard legislation about those who were suspected to being involved in conspiracies against the State led to two of the most extreme cases of conviction for espionage in the country.The first case happened in 1948 when Mr Wittacher, a former communist spy, accused a man named Alger Hiss to be a Soviet spy by showing some microfilms of government documents that Hiss passed on to the Soviets. Hiss was convicted of perjurysince he told the jury he did not know anything about the documents, the Soviets in the 1990's confirmed that Hiss was spying for them.
The trial against Albert Hiss could not prepare the American public from the acts of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg in 1949. Probably one of the biggest, and worst, espionage cases to be recorded, the Rosenbergs were first heard of in the case against Klaus Fich, a physicist who helped the Soviet Union develop their first atomic bomb. The Rosenberg's were minor activists in the American Communist Party and were accused of espionage. During their trials both Ethel and Julius Rosenberg pleaded the Fifth Amendment and stated that they were in court because of their religon, Judaism, and their radical beliefs. Despite the effort of some Americans, the Rosemberg were sentenced to death by the Judge Irving Kaufman who said that their crime, helping the Soviets make their own atomic bomb, was worse than murder.In 1953 the Rosenbergs died on the electric chair, leaving two sons orphaned, and they became the first civilians executed in the United States for espionage.
Alger Hiss, Ethel and Julius Rosenberg, even if they were guilty, were caught in a wave of American despair. They became the scapegoats that American politicians blamed for the Cold War. Their names became linked with trouble and synonymous with treason. They will always be known in that dark part of American history. Even if new generations do not remember their names, our history books will never let us forget them.


Silvia and Bisrat

The Korean War

In 1910 Japan had annexed Korea until War World II. When the Japanese troops north of Korea (North of the 38th parallel) surrendered to the Soviet Union and Japanese troops of the south surrendered to the United States. Therefore the south became Capitalist and North of Korea became communist.
Later on the US cut back on troops in South Korea. Consequently the Soviet Union concluded that the U.S. would not defend South Korea. Soviet Union then got North Korea prepared with tanks, airplanes, and money. With all that the Soviet Union attempted to takes over the entire peninsula. On June 25th, 1950 North Korea surprise attacked South Korea, which officially started the Korean War. South Korea asked United Nation to stop the invasion, when the matter came to a vote, Soviet Union wasn’t there for the Security Council meeting, therefore the vote passed.
Sixteen nations sent total of 520,000 troops and over ninety percent were American and South Korea had 590,000 troops. The combined forces were under the command of General Douglas MacArthur. North Korean had forced the UN and South Korean troops into a small defensive zone around Pusan in southeastern corner of the peninsula. MacArthur planned for a counterattack with tanks, heavy artillery, and fresh troops. On September 15th, 1950 his troops made a surprise attack behind enemy lines in Inchon. While other troops made north from Pusan, which trapped the North Korea troops between the attacking forces. About half of the North Korean troops surrendered, and the rest fled to the north. The UN army chased the retreating North Korean troops into North Korea. In late November, the UN troops approached the Yalu River, the boarder between North Korea and China. It seemed that Korea would be finally united again, however, the Chinese joined the battle. Communist China’s foreign minister, Zhou En-lai, warned that his country would not stand idly. The Chinese wanted North Korea as communist buffer state to protect their northeastern provinces that made up Manchuria. They also felt threatened by the American fleet that lain off their coast. The fight between North Korea and South Korea had escalated into a war in which the main opponents were China and America. China drove the UN troop southward and at some point at the battlefronts, the Chinese outnumbered UN forces in ration of ten to one.
Later on, in early January 1951, all the UN and South Korea had been pushed out of North Korea, and China advanced south and captured Seoul. Both sides were stuck in a bloody stalemate. In 1951, Mathew B. Ridgeway, who led the eighth army, took Seoul and moved back to the 38th parallel. On June 23rd, 1951 Soviet Union unexpectedly suggested a cease-fire. In July 1951 the truce talks began, first about the establishment of a demilitarized zone between the opposite sides, secondly about the location of the cease-fire line of the existing battle line. Another year was spent on the exchange of prisoners. Finally in 1953, the two signed an armistice, which ended the war, and that the agreement was a stalemate. The war cost total of 54,000 American lives and additionally $67 million in expenditures.
By Melody and Noa

Korean War

Japan had ruled over Korea from 1910 until 1945. As the end of World War II approached, troops south of the 38th parallel surrendered to the Americans while the troops north of the parallel surrendered to the soviets. As a result of this, two nations developed; one was democratic while the other was communistic.
In 1948, South Korea, Republic of Korea, was occupied by the United States. The government was led by Syngman Rhee. However, simultaneously, the Communists formed the Democratic People's Republic of Korea led by Kim II Sung. Whereas the capital of South Korea was in Seoul, North Korea's was in Pyongyang. After WWII, in June 1949, there were only 500 troops remaining in Southern Korea. Due to this, the Soviets decided to invade South Korea.
The North Korean's ambushed South Korea on June 25, 1950. This led both countries into what is now known as the Korean War. Within days, North Korea had seized a large portion of South Korea. The South Koreans requested the United Nations to end the invasion. UN voted to aid South Korea due to a boycott from the Soviets protesting the presence of Taiwan.
On June 27, Troops stationed in Japan were ordered to support the South Koreans. Also, an American fleet was sent between China and Taiwan. In total, 16 nations sent a total of 520,000 troops. However, over 90% of these troops were from the U.S. After a month of fighting, North Korea forced the UN and South Korean troops to a small defensive zone around Pusen in the southeastern corner of the peninsula.
September 15, 1950 was when the U.S. troops launched a counter attack, which was a surprise amphibious assault. This allowed the beginnings of a U.S. push for communism to disappear form Korea. However, as U.S. troops approached the Yalu River, Communist China’s foreign minister, Zhou En-lai wanted North Korea as a buffer to protect the small communist states that made up Manchuria. Therefore, in late November 1950, 300,000 Chinese troops joined North Korea to push back the U.S. troops. Their numbers were so overwhelming that they drove the U.S. troops back to the middle of Korea. For the duration of the war, two years, it was mostly a standoff with neither side clearly winning
After the controversy of Macarthur died down, Soviet Union suggested a ceasefire on June 23, 1951. The line of separation was decided here and negotiators spent another year negotiating for prisoner releases. July 1953, the Armistice was declared. U.S. totaled a loss of 54,000 lives and they spent $67 billion in expenditures. As the war was viewed as a loss, the Democratic party didn't win the next election.

By: Eric and Johnny

The Start of the Korean War

Before around 1910, Japan had annexed Korea and ruled it until 1945. When the war ended , territory was surrendered to allied forces. However, soon after the U.S had to cut back on armed forces in South Korea. This withdrawal lead Soviets to think the U.S would not fight to defend Korea. So soon after, Soviets prepared to back Korea by providing tanks ,airplanes,and money in an attempt to take over the entire peninsula. On June 25, 1950 , North Korea's forces swept across the 38th parallel in a surprise attack on the south.This start of conflict officially started the Korean war. South Korea asks the UN for help against their northern enemies. Days later the vote was passed due to Soviet absence. June 27, President Truman ordered troops stationed in Japan to support the South Koreans. All together,sixteen nations sent about 520,000 troops to aid the south.(90% were American) Also, South Korean troops added an additional 590,000. The combined forces were placed under the command of the General Douglas MacArthur, former World War two hero in the Pacific.

Origins of the Cold War

After World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as superpowers. Their different political systems, economic systems, and ambitions for the future led to the tension between the former allies, which is later known as the Cold War. Joseph Stalin, the totalitarian Communist leader of the Soviet Union, wanted the United States to attack Germany and were angered that the U.S. had secretly developed the atomic bomb. On April 12, 1945, Franklin Delano Roosevelt died and Truman became president of the United States, which was capitalist and had competing political parties. The United Nations, which was originally intended to promote world peace, became a place where the two superpowers competed for influence over other nations. On July 1945, in the Potsdam Conference, The Big Three (U.S., Great Britain, and Soviet Union), Harry Truman, Clement Attlee, and Stalin met for the last wartime meeting. Stalin had broken his promise to former U.S. president Franklin Delano Roosevelt at the Yalta Conference that he would allow Soviet controlled nations, specifically Poland, to hold free elections. This time, Truman insisted on allowing free election to spread democracy over nations that were once dominated by the Nazis during the WWII. Soviet Union wanted to take control over parts of Eastern Europe to prevent future attacks from the West because it had suffered massive destruction of land and approximately 20 million Soviet deaths. Stalin planted Communist governments in Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania and Poland, which became the Soviet Union’s satellite nations. In 1946, a policy of containment, which was proposed by George F. Kennan, stated that the U.S. would to stop further spread of Communism in other nations at all costs.

Jazreel and Tamara

Korean War

From 1910 until August 1945, Korea had been annexed by Japan. Near the ending of World War II, the Japanese north of the 38th parallel were forced to surrender to the Soviets, while those south had surrendered to the Americans. The results created a Northern communist part of Korea that was ruled by Kim Il Sung, and a Southern democratic part of Korea that was democratic. After WWII, the American troops left, leaving only 500 remaining in the south.
On June 25th, 1950, the North Koreans attacked the south, causing the Korean War. South Korea then called the UN to help stop the invasion, and Soviets were not able to veto the plan, due to being busy with boycotting the presence of Nationalist China (Taiwan). President Truman also gave support to the south by ordering the troops in Japan to help. Eventually, there were 16 nations in total sending aid, and adding 520,000 troops to South Korea's 590,000. WWII hero, General Douglas MacArthur was assigned to lead them.

On September 15th, 1950, a surprise attack was launched at Ichon, while other troops moved north from Pusan. The North Koreans were trapped. Half of the troops surrendered, while the others fled back to the 38th parallel, only to be chased down by the UN army.

Meanwhile, China's foreign minister Zhou En-lai ordered not to let Americans come. 300,000 chinese troops were sent to aid North Korea, and they managed to drive out all of the forces away. MacArthur requested permission to attack China, though President Truman rejected it due to the fear of WWIII.

On June 23rd, 1953, both sides agreed on a cease-fire on the battle line, and the establishment of a demelitarized zone. An armistice was created in July, ending the Korean War. The US had ended up sacraficing 54,000 lives, and $67 billion.

McCarthy and his "Witch Hunt"

In the 1950's World War II scared the public into fearing Communism. They were afraid that Communists would destroy the United States of America. The leader of the Anti-Communists was named Joseph McCarthy. He was a Republican Senator from Wisconsin. He believed that Communists along with “undesirables” were planning to overthrow the government. He decided to fight Communism by using the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC).
He tried to find Communists in the community by asking people to turn people who they thought were anti-American. This practice was called McCarthyism. Many people used this system to falsely accuse people who they had issues with. This turned into a big problem because people who were falsely accused named more people in order to avoid their own prosecution. McCarthyism also involved various methods of public humiliation. Among these methods was the utilization of televised public hearings. These public interrogations broadcasted intimate details of the accused person’s private life for all to see. Furthermore, the HUAC used blacklists to disrupt the lives of people they deemed “political threats”. If you were blacklisted, your accounts were frozen, you were constantly monitored, and most likely you could not leave the state.
McCarthyism eventually died out, and McCarthy died May 2, 1957. His legacy lives on in the play "The Crucible"
By Kevin and Alex

The Cold War Takes to the Skies

The Cold War remains a significant conflict in the history of the United States. Nuclear warfare was a constant threat, and the people lived in ongoing fear. However, conflicts with the Soviet Union took a new turn when dictator Joseph Stalin died in 1953. His successor, Nikita Khrushchev, believed that communism would engulf the word peacefully. He played out the Cold War with a new policy of friendly competition. Khrushchev believed in competing in areas such as scientific development. The result was many significant technological advances, particularly in space and the skies.

The space race was one of these competitions that sprang from Khrushchev's policy. On October 4th, 1957, the Soviet Union surprised the US in their sudden launching of Sputnik, the world's largest satellite. Not to be outdone, America launched their own development program and succeeded in launching their first satellite January 1st, 1958. With this, the space race was on.

America also succeeded in developing the U-2, a plane used for spying missions. The U-2 could fly at high altitudes without detection, and pilots used infrared cameras to take photographs of Soviet Union military activity. The CIA put these planes to use in a series of secret flights over Soviet Territory following the rejection of President Eisenhower's "open skies" proposal in 1955 at the Geneva summit Conference.

The "open skies" proposal suggested that both the United States and the Soviet Union be allowed to conduct flights in each others' air space in order to monitor military activity. In defiance of the rejection of this proposal, Eisenhower continuously ordered high-altitude flights despite the fact that the Soviets had been aware of them since 1958. Officials started to grow nervous, especially after the Soviets fired a number of missiles at the planes. Missiles were not capable of reaching the high-altitude yet, but Eisenhower himself began to worry.

Finally, he ordered one last flight on May 1, carried out by pilot Francis Gary Powers. Unfortunately, a Soviet pilot succeeding in shooting down his plane. Not only was he imprisoned for ten years, but tensions between Soviet Russia and the US were renewed.

Steve Zhou and Madeleine Traver The Cold War Takes to the Skies

Korean War -Maya and Fumi

After the Japanese lost control of Korea, it was divided into Democratic South Korea and Communist North Korea. North Korea was backed by the Soviet Union and the South was backed by the U.S. After WWII ended, the US forces stationed in South Korea were cut back. In June 1949, Soviet Union began to stock up after they concluded that the U.S. wouldn't fight back an attack by the north. In June 25, 1950,there was a surprise attack on South Korea by the North. The Northern forces pushed Southern forces all the way back to the southern most corner called Pusan. In June 27th, Truman ordered troops stationed in Japan to intervene. With the new troops, and the under the leadership General MacArthur, the northern forces were pushed back until China intervened in November of 1950. This continued on until both sides signed an armistice in July 1953, ending the war. 

McCarthy's "Witch Hunt"

Anti-communist movements were popular in the United States after World War II. Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy from Wisconsin was the most famous anti-communist activist. His first few years in the Senate, he was viewed as an ineffective legislator; thus in order to be reelected to the Senate seat, he used anti-communism as a "winning issue". From 1950 to 1952, McCarthy accused communists of taking over the government. McCarthy's actions led to the coining of the term McCarthyism, which was used to describe the unprecedented accusations of disloyalty without evidence. He even went as far as to charge the Democratic Party as a whole of 20 years of treason for allowing Communists to infiltrate the government. McCarthy only made such allegations in the Senate due to his legal immunity; this immunity protected him from being sued for slander. Republicans also did not attempt to stop McCarthy's attacks because they believed it would help them win the 1952 presidential election if the public saw that they were attempting to rid the nation of communists. McCarthy's downfall came in 1954 when he accused the U.S. Army of being of having communist members. A nationally televised Senate investigation was launched and due to McCarthy's tendency to bully witnesses, he lost public support. Eventually, the Senate condemned him for improper conduct that "tended to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute." Three years later, McCarthy died of alcoholism.

-Amelia Wong and Polly Cho

War in the Pacific

Tension on the western coast between Japan and United States had been building since the start of the war. The tension erupted when the Japanese initiated a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. One of the primary reasons behind the surprise attack was the hopes of crippling the U.S navy; this would leave the Pacific Ocean completely under Japan domination. However, the majority of submarines were unscathed. Also coincidently, U.S aircraft carriers were out at sea. As a result, the U.S was setback, but still commanded a formidable navy.

Six months after Pearl Harbor, the Japanese empire had expanded like a wild fire. The Japanese empire now consisted not only of Japan, but also Hong Kong, French Indochina, Malaya, Burma, Thailand, Dutch East Indies, Guam, Wake Island, Solomon Islands, part of Alaska, and a large portion of China. At the Philippines, there was a stalemate between 80,000 Americans and Filipino troops and 200,000 Japanese invading troops. After four months of brutal fighting, the Allied force had been cornered at Bataan Peninsula. On March 11, 1942, under President Roosevelt's orders, Douglas MacArthur left the Philippines.

The outlook had begun to change in spring 1942. Lieutenant Colonel James Doolittle, along with 16 bombers, led a risky attack on April 18 to raid Japanese cities. The success of the attack boosted America's morale. In May 1942, American and Australian troops halted the Japanese advance on Australia in a five-day battle later called Battle of the Coral Sea. Only aircraft participated in this battle; no surface ships fired any shots. Japan then redirected its thrust toward Midway, an island north-west of Hawaii. However, the Americans had broken the Japanese code and mounted a defense at Midway. Admiral Chester Nimitz, who was defending the island, sent out scout planes who on June 3, 1942 located the Japanese fleet. Nimitz quickly sent torpedo planes and dive bombers. This surprise attack ambushed the Japanese; their planes had not lifted off the decks of their carriers. As a consequence, the Japanese navy was crippled. They had lost four aircraft carriers, a cruiser and 250 planes.

Soon after the Battle of Midway, Allies began to liberate island after island, “island hopping”. The first Japanese defeat on land was at Guadacanal in the Solomon Islands. The Allies continued leap frogging and in October 1944, around 178,000 Allied troops escorted by 738 ships headed toward the Philippines. The Japanese began to use a new tactic, the kamikaze, at Leyte, Philippines. Despite the effectiveness of the kamikaze, the losses at Leyte eviscerated the Japanese navy. They had lost 3 battle ships, 4 air carriers, 13 cruisers, and almost 500 planes. From then on, the navy only played a minor role in the defense of Japan.

The Allies now focused on retaking a large portion of the Philippines and took heavy casualties on Iwo Jima. Iwo Jima was an island that was close enough to Japan that heavy bombers could refuel and load up armament. Okinawa was the last major obstacle that prevented the Allies from attacking Japan. At Okinawa there were huge casualties on both sides. However, the casualties on the Japanese side were staggering.

Knowing that a land invasion would possibly decimate both nations, President Truman decided to drop the atomic bomb, named Little Boy, over Hiroshima. When the Japanese leaders still refused to surrender, another atomic bomb, named Fat Man, was dropped on Nagasaki. The Emperor Hirohinto promptly requested that the Japanese officials surrender to the U.S.

By: Eric and Johnny

Rebuilding After WWII

In February 1945, for 8 days, Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin met at the Black Sea resort city of Yalta, in the Soviet Union. Roosevelt managed to convince Churchill to agree to seperating Germany into 4 zones; American, British, Soviet, and French. Stalin also promised "free and unfettered elections," and agreed with joining the war against Japan. He also agreed to participate in the international conference in April at San Francisco, forming the United Nations.
Meanwhile in Germany, the Nuremberg trials were happening, arresting or sentencing deaths to Nazis. Hitler's most trusted party officials, government ministers, military leaders, and powerful industrialists were put on trail, sentencing 12 out of the 24 to death. Two hundred Nazi's were found guilty later on, but many others did go free. Many non-Germans argue that the trials were too easy on the defendents.
Trials were also happening for the Japanese, causing the execution of Prime Minster Tojo. In 1945-1952, General MacArthur in Japan, introduced free-market practices, as well as a constitution for woman suffrage and basic freedoms for citizens known as the MacArthur Constitution.
In the US, 1978, the Japanese American Citizens League got Reagan to sign a bill giving $20,000 to every Japanese-American that was sent to a relocation camp during the war.
Meanwhile, Stalin began installing satellite nations, dominating Eastern European countries. Kennan, an American diplomat, proposed a policy of containment, preventing communist rule. Secretary of State, George Marshall also introduced the Marshall Plan, attempting to help the millions of people in Western Europe that were living in refugee camps.

The Atom Ends the War

Research on Uranium began in 1941when Roosevelt received news that Germany had succeeded in splitting a Uranium atom and releasing an enormous amount of energy. In response, Roosevelt created the Office of Scientific Research and Development, which mobilized scientists to spur improvements in new technology, including research done by scientists on the Advisory Committee on Uranium.

Led by General Leslie Groves and directed by scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer, the building of the atom bomb was called the Manhattan Project because much early research was done at Columbia University, Manhattan. The intense plan was established in 1942, aiming to build an atomic bomb as quickly as possible. The Manhattan Project stands as the most ambitious war investment as well as the best kept secret of war in history.

After the first successful test in a desert near Alamogordo, New Mexico on July 16, 1945, Truman did not hesitate to use the new weapon of war against Japan. The biggest reason why the US dropped the bombs is that it was supposed to cost less lives than a land invasion. From the casualties from the taking of Okinawa, it was predicted that a land invasion of mainland Japan would result in massive loss of lives. As a result, Truman ordered the dropping of the atom bomb code-named Little Boy on Japanese military center Hiroshima on August 6, 1945; the explosion leveled the entire city. When Japan still hesitated to surrender, Truman proceeded to drop "Fat Man" on Nagasaki three days later, completely destroying half the city. Deaths from the blast and radiation numbered around 200,000, finally convincing Emperor Hirohito to surrender and end the war.

Steve Zhou and Shteve Zhou

The Battle of the Atlantic and the North African Front

In 1942 after the attacks on Pearl Harbor, Hitler did not hesitate to launch another attack on the Allies. He ordered submarine raids on ships along the Eastern Atlantic coast with the goal of preventing transportation of food and war supplies to Great Britain and the Soviet Union. The reasoning behind his plan lied within Great Britain's dependance upon the sea for transportation of goods. Hitler's ultimate goal was to starve Great Britain into submission, thus gaining another victory to support his plan for revenge from World War I. In the first four months of 1942, German fleets sank 87 Allied ships, and three months after, a total of 681 Allied ships had been destroyed. 

In order to prevent further defeat, Allies responded by organizing their cargo ships into convoys. These convoys were groups of cargo ships that traveled together and provided mutual protection, which was a tactic that was also used in World War I. The convoys were escorted with many layers of protection. They were followed by destroyers with sonars to detect German submarines. Also, they were covered in the air by planes with radars in order to spot German U-boats on the ocean surface. Eventually, Allies were able to find and destroy U-boats faster than Germany could produce them. Finally, in 1943, Admiral Karl Orenitz issued a statement that Germany's losses had "reached an unbearable height." As a result, the United States launched a ship building program in early 1943. Approximately 140 liberty ships were produced each month, and the amount of ships produced outnumbered the number of sunken ships. By the mid 1943s, the tide turned and the Allies were at an advantage. 

Towards the end of the year of 1942, Stalin pushed the Allies to invade Western Europe, but Churchill and Roosevelt felt that they weren't strong enough, so they launched Operation Torch: an invasion of Axis-controlled North Africa instead.

In November, 1942, 107,000 Allied troops commanded by Dwight D. Eisenhower landed in North Africa.  The troops pushed the Afrika Korps, led by General Erwin  Rommel (Desert Fox) eastward in continuous, bloody battle. The Afrika Korps finally surrendered in May 1943. British general Harold Alexander sent a message to Chuchill saying, "All enemy resistance has ceased. We are masters of the North African shores."

-Amelia Wong and Polly Cho

Women in the U.S Military

The first time that women officially served in the U.S. army was during World War 1, but in that period they were not given full benefits an only non-combat positions. 

When the USA entered World War 2 the U.S military needed more people to fight for them so the Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall pushed for the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC).

The bill met a lot of opposition and outrage, but it was finally passed by the Congress on May 15, 1942, instituting the Women Auxiliary Army Corps. 

Though the WAAC, women could enter the military, they were only allowed to have non-combat positions, in particular as nurser and ambulance drivers, but also as radio operators, pilots and electricians.

Despite this amount of duty, women did not still given full U.S Army benefits.

This situation changed in July 1943, when after many women enlisted in the army, the WAAC was renamed to WAC, and women's auxiliary status was dropped: women finally received the same benefits as the men who joined the Army.

A big contribution to WAAC's programs was given by Ms. Oveta Culp Hobby, a Texan newspaper director and also first director of the Women Auxiliary Army Corps.

By publishing insertions on her newspaper, she called for volunteers to join WAAC, obtaining a big success: the first day she called for recruits, about 13.000 women responded positively.

Since that day, women divisions of the U.S. army have given a big contribution to the country: in 1978, the male and female forces were joint together and in 2001, about 200.000 women served in the army.

This is a very important story, because at first, is an important proof of how women supported and still support their country and at second, its very important how this struggle was recognized by the Government and helped women to have more freedom, also in defending their country.

Rebuidling after WWII

In February 1945, the big three, Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill met at the Yalta Conference. They discussed the fate of Germany and the postwar world for eight days. Stalin thought that Germany should be occupied by Allies military forces because he thought a harsh punishment would serve the Germans right. Churchill disagreed. Roosevelt tried to convince Stalin in a more approachable way and hoped Stalin would help Roosevelt to finish the war against Japan and support the world peace-keeping, United Nations. Stalin promised to "free and unfettered elections" in Poland and agreed to join the war against Japan on August 8, 1945. The big three also decided as a result to divide Germany into four zones, one each for America, Britain, Soviet, and the French.
The Nuremberg Trial also occurred in Germany; Twelve out of twenty-four Nazi leaders were sentenced to death, the others were sent to prison. However, more than 200 lesser Nazi leaders who took part in the Holocaust were set free.
Later on, Japan was occupied by General Douglas MacArthur and the United States force. They arrested and put more than 1,100 Japanese from the former Prime Minister Hideki Tojo to lowly prison guards on trial. In the process, MacArthur helped reshape Japan’s economy from setting free-market examples that led to an extraordinary economic recovery, which is now also known as the MacArthur Constitution.

Japanese American Discrimination

The attack on Pearl Harbor sparked nationwide prejudice towards Japanese American's in the US. The fear of another attack caused the War Department to issue the mass evacuation of all Japanese American's in Hawaii. Being that 37% of the population of Hawaii were Japanese Americans, Hawaii resisted the order. However, not before relocating 1444 Japanese American personals. Still Japanese American prejudice was still rampant in the mainland, especially the west coast. By February 19, 1942, rumors and fears eventually led President Roosevelt to order a nationwide internment of Japanese Americans in the states of CA, WA, OR, and AR. The Supreme Court case of Korematsu v. US case in 1944, protesting against the Japanese American confinement, was won by the US stating that is was a "military necessity." The Japanese eventually received  20,000 dollars for each individual for lost property in World War two.

The Battle of the Pacific and the Atomic Bomb

The bombing of Pearl Harbor was the final straw for United States neutrality in World War II. After December 7, 1941, Congress declared war on the Axis powers. The battles took place in three locales, including the Pacific and Europe. On deserted Pacific islands, U.S. Marines witnessed some of the bloodiest fighting known to man. One such battle was that of the Solomon Islands, August 21, 1945, in which the Allies suffered over 7,100 fatalities and lost 29 ships and over 600 aircraft. These tremendous losses were nothing compared to immense destruction wrought upon the Empire of Japan. With over 31,000 dead and about 700 aircraft destroyed during this battle, the Japanese army seemed on the verge of surrender.
Further American casualties in the battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa, 6,000 and 7,600 respectively, bring up the question of whether island hopping was the best military strategy for the war in the Pacific. Recent speculation concerning the Manhattan Project and the testing of the Atomic Bomb create the moral dilemma between losing American lives or inflicting massive losses to the Japanese people. Which is the moral choice? That decision is left to President Truman to decide.

Kevin and Alex