Final Project: Freedom of Communication

The THEME of our final project was how inventions and advances in technology since the 1970s have given us more freedom of communication. Cell phones, email, and audio storages like cassette tapes and CDs are just a few of the many inventions that enable people today to communicate efficiently and quickly.

In our project, we used large floppy disks, Post-Its, a casette tape, a computer mouse, GRC's typewriter ribbon, high-density diskette, pager, vinyl record, Radio Shack cassette recorder, and studio projector light bulbs. All of these items and advances made to these items since the 1970s allow us to have more freedom of communication today. Floppy disks, casette tapes, the diskette, vinyl record etc...have allowed us to store information and data. Post-its, as well as email and cellular phones (which we had pictures and quotes for), have made communication more efficient. In a matter of minutes, news can travel from person to person or even from the government to the public. The items on our box are only a handful of the many technologies that were used since the 1970s that have improved communication.

To obtain items, my group members and I looked around our houses, before asking relatives. In addition, Ms. Sanderson helped us by passing around a box with very useful items in it that were donated or even hers! (Thank You!!!!!!!!) Every time the box came around, it was like Christmas all over again. :)

Next time, I would start the project earlier. Also, I would pick a more interesting arrangement of our boxes.

My advice for future found artists would be it's okay to procrastinate...FOR ONE DAY MAXIMUM. Then you really need to start finding items and boxes to cover and put together. Check the wonderful cardboard box mentioned above, but also ask everyone (parents, relatives, teachers, etc...) for items. Get more than ten and stick more than ten on your boxes. Make it colorful. The right yellow or red or green can make people very happy. However, make sure they match.

Make sure you have pictures and deep quotes.

Tamara Chang
Period C

Technology of the 70s and 80s

Our theme was the effect of technology of the 70s and 80s on communication. We chose that theme because we wanted to look at the roots of our current technological items and how they have changed our lifestyles. Our items included lightbulb, tape ribbon cassette, pager, cassette recorder, high-density diskette, mouse, floppy disks, cassette tape, vinyl record and CD. We used these particular items because they represented the popular technological usage of 70s and 80s. They helped connect people across the nation through messages, music and information. These items were the stepping stones to the sprout of modern day technology. We obtained our items by researching a list of inventions and technology used in the 70s and 80s through the internet. Like scavangers, we went through the attics and storage of our houses to find items that were used by our parents or other family members during that particular time period. If I were to do redo this project again, I would make sure we had more space to place our items because most of our technological found art were placed on the top of the boxes because if we stuck them to the side, they would not be able not defy the gravitational pull.
My advice to the next year class would be do not procrastinate. It would be wise to start early and know ahead of time what items you and your team has so that you can ask your family, friends and staff members at Gunn for more items. Also, make sure you color your boxes to make it more visually appealing. In addition, work on the box ahead of time. Do not wait till the last day to put it together. Good luck!

We are... the people of rock and roll

Group Members:

Alex D
Jonathan
Bruce

Our theme covered the media revolution of the time period known as "Rock 'n' Roll". We tried to cover the different aspects of rock and roll as well as the different influences that it had on American Culture. We also wanted to show the viewer several of the musical movements that went into making rock and roll. We displayed several topics, such as the anti-war perspective of the American youth, and the rapidly changing fashion choices of the era. We also had a section about punk rock, one of the many musical revolutions that was sparked by the Rock and Roll movement.

Among our "Found Art" items, we had several original album covers from popular artists of the time period, such as Rainbow, Deep Purple, Queen, and Roger Waters. These artists were in the thick of 80s rock, shelling out deep songs which moved their listeners. Among the other items were a pair of headphones, which one would find at their average record store, and a guitar pick, which would have been a concert-goer's collector's item. We also had several copies of original pictures of notable artists of the time period, such as the O'Jays, Robert Cray, Rose Royce, and Pink Floyd.

We used the Internet to obtain our quotes. I scrounged around my dad's expansive rock music collection to select the albums which I particularly liked or thought had interesting cover art. We also found art in encyclopedia's and then scanned the picture into a computer. We also bought some items which would have been around at the time period.

I would plan better if I were to do this project again, as we were extremely pressed for time at the end of this project. If I had a re-do, I would also try to find more Found Art, such as a record to express music or a headband which could have been worn by your average rocker. Also I probably would labor more extensively over the actual assembly of our project, but with more time I am sure this would have happened.


My advice to next year's class is exactly what I would do differently if I could do this project again. Make sure you get your found art earlier or else your project will turn into a mad rush for items and your project will not be as great as it could be. Also make sure to meet all the milestones or else your grade will suffer.

-Alex Doundakov

PS: Go to http://timeline.wikia.com/wiki/Main_Page --> interesting!

We are influenced by the media

The theme of our final project was television and its impact on society in the 1970's-1990's. The growth of television in the 70's-90's greatly impacted society. It brought in an uncanny form of entertainment to stay-at-home mothers, families, children, and teens.
We chose our items based on their relevance to television in the 1970's-1990's their influence on society. The layout of our project was in the format of four televisions stacked in the shape of a square, like in the theme of the Brady Bunch. The Brady Bunch is a show about one big family that is a mash of two divorced families; it made divorce socially acceptable. We also used several stuffed animals from various children's education shows such as Sesame Street and the Muppets. Sesame Street was created in 1969 and it became the standard for educational television, which allowed children to learn in a "fun" way. We also adorned our boxes with clothing from the 70's to demonstrate the influence of television on fashion. We also spread other various items from television shows in the 70's-90's around our boxes such as a mini wheel of fortune, a clock to represent 60 minutes, and old VHS, and rabbit ear antennae.
Our quest to find our "found art" items began with our individual searches through our homes. After we had scrounged our homes for old items relating to television, we moved on to asking friends and family if they had anything that could be of use to us.
If I were to do this project again, I would definitely begin earlier and spend more time decorating the boxes outside of class.
My advice to next year's class is that it is not as easy as you would think it would be to find items from the 1970's-1990's even though all our parents were alive during this time. What we would consider "found art", they consider junk; a lot of them threw all their old stuff away.

-Polly Cho

We are produts of President Ronald Reagan's presidency

For our project, we chose to focus on President Ronald Reagan. This is because he was a major president during the time period (1980-1989). We focused on the things that he did during his presidency for our items.
We took a picture in front of the pieces of the Berlin wall because during Reagan's presidency he gave a famous speech that demanded that Gorbachev tear down the Berlin Wall. We also brought a Newsweek magazine that talked about what he was doing during his presidency. WE also included a program from a Stanford commencement because the guest speaker for that day was Sandra Day O'Connor. She was important because she was the first woman to be appointed to Supreme Court. She was nominated by President Reagan. We also found many political cartoons from the time period which included President Reagan
We got our objects by visiting elderly neighbors, looking on the internet, and searching through many boxes in the garage.
I would have chosen a different topic because the topic that we chose was very narrow, so it was very hard to find specific things.
I would advise people to collect their items early. If they can't find enough items, simply switch your topic! This is because without your items, your project will look blank.

Found Art Project (We are fun and entertainment)

Group members: Tyler, Silvia, Noa, and Melody

The theme was entertainment, under that category was video games, music, and movies. It was something that excited the public and stirred up attention to.

We chose some to bring some cassette tapes, movies boxes, star war pictures, pong pictures, pacman pictures, floppies, lyrics, and stuff from our storage rooms.They were all source of entertainment because these were the activities the people did in their free time. Some songs were on cassette tapes and the lyrics from the singers/band reflected over their thoughts in that time period. The movies also reflected over the time period, and influenced some people about war/politics/movements. Games was a big hit since it filled in the slot of free time and it was exciting to play since it thrilled people to play/re-play/beat the game.

We obtained our objects from buying stuff on ebay, searching up pictures online, looking in every corner of our homes, and finding some of the objects from people around that time period. Some objects are hard to find, so we asked people that were around the 1970s-1980s and borrow their objects to put onto the boxes.

I would try managing my time even because everybody seemed to be too busy and we were every where when we were doing the project. Meaning that we were wondering what to do, how we should assemble the project and how we should structure our outline. Understand the project completely in order to know what the teacher wants us to make the outline and project.

My advice to the next year's class about this project is to put teamwork into it,check your teammate's found object, and check their outline to make sure it is reasonable. Also ask questions if they need it and ask your teammates what information/materials they got from the teacher.

by Melody

The Developments of Technology

Topic: Technology

Group Members: Eric Greco, Alex Mackay, Johnny Lau, Corey Long

 

Our theme was about the development of technology from 1970-1990. We gathered items that showed the changes in technology, such as laptops, records, and floppy disks. This topic interested us because it played such a dramatic role in the how our country developed and changed overtime.

 

We put together our project by putting two boxes on the bottom to play the base and one box on top in the center. On the very top of the center box we put color slides, then on the sides of the center box we covered one side with a record. Two of the other sides were covered with pictures of people who played key roles in changing our technology, such as Bill Gates and Steve Jobs, along with quotes from them. The other sides of the boxes on the bottom two had items such as tape recorders, floppy disks, and cd’s attached. We also glued on pictures of technological inventions that changed our lifestyle.

 

Gathering these items became a large task of its own, because we went to most of our parents to gather items but a lot of the ones we were searching for had been thrown away. We got a few of our items via the class, such as our floppy disk, but many of the items I found in my house. My mom gave me an old record, tape recorder, and slides. We got our boxes from the library.

 

It was very difficult to find items from the 70s and 80s that had still been kept. So, if we could have redone this project instead of doing a topic that interested us, maybe do one that we know we will have access to many items from that time period.

 

For next year’s class, I recommend choosing a topic that not only interests you but one that will be easy to find items for. Do not wait till the last minute to start the project, and on the day when you know you will be working in class have your box set-up already put together. Make sure you have the needed supplies and that no one in your group is slacking. This is not the type of project you want to start on the day it is due. Have the project describe the time period and your topic. Do not just put pictures on it, give it an identity.

 Eric G

 

We Are...

We chose technology to understand its blooming role in the seventies and on. It came to be a significant part of what defined human society, from its implications and possibilities to its negative effects on the environment. Technology became our choice as a theme mainly because of how relevant it is to our lives.

The items that we chose represented things more closely associated with normal life; we did not look for mainframe computers or large lab technology because it did not apply to the sense of everyday living that we wanted to convey. The computer mouse was a revolutionary device for all Americans with personal desktops; the record was a common source of entertainment that almost everybody had. We had quite a few computer-related items because the computer today is one of the most widely used tools today; it is one of those things without which our society would completely fall into shambles. We wanted to explore and indicate the budding of the computer and its premature state before coming to dominate modern society.

In finding our items we used many resources provided by our teacher. In addition we found old devices around our homes we knew we had. We were somewhat short on items; we didn't think of many of the interesting things we could have brought till the end. If given another chance I would have searched for technological advances in the very beginning and chosen the most interesting to bring.

The best piece of advice I could give to future students who will do this project is to start assembling the project outside of class; the one period given to assemble is not enough time to make it nice.

Reaction to Brown Supreme Court Decision

After the supreme court decision on May 17, 1954 for the Brown v. Board of Education case, things changed dramatically.In states such as Kansas and Oklahoma , state officials said things should change with little trouble.However, in other states like Mississippi and Georgia , state officials vowed to give total resistance. Governor Talmadge of Georgia said, " The people of Georgia will not comply with the decision of the court ......We're going to do whatever is necessary in Georgia to keep white children in white schools and colored children in colored schools."Within a year,more than 500 school districts had desegregated their classrooms, To speed things up, in 1955 the supreme court handed down a second ruling,known as Brown II, that ordered school desegregation implemented "with all deliberate speed." In 1948, Arkansas had become the first Southern state to admit African Americans to state universities without being required by a court order. By the 1950s ,some scout troops and labor unions in Arkansas had quietly ended their Jim Crow practices.Newly elected school bored officials were publicly for desegregation in schools. One of them,Virgil Blossom,began planning for desegregation soon after Brown. However, Governor Orval Faubus publicly showed support for segregation. In September 1957, he ordered the National Guard to turn away the "Little Rock Nine"-nine African-American students who had volunteered to integrate Little Rock's Central High School as the first step in Blossom's plan. A federal judge ordered Faubus to let the students into school. Later on September 9,1957, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1957,the first civil rights law since Reconstruction.

Brown v. The Board of Education of Topeka

      Brown v. The Board of Education of Topeka, a decision that launched the United States towards equality for all men, white and black. Too bad that many segregationists did not think about it that way.  People from Texas,  to Georgia, and Mississippi were completely against de-segragating their public facilities so much that  the Governor of Georgia, Herman Talmadge, was reported saying that he was  “going to do whatever is necessary in Georgia to keep white children in white school and colred children in colored schools.” 

      To bad for him that the Supreme Court was completely against him. They even sent out a second ruling, also known as Brown II, to speed up the desegregation of schools.Many whites in the South did not know or care about Brown v. Education of Topeka or Brown II, until it started to affect the area in which they lived in. Like in Little Rock, Arkansas where the "Little Rock Nine" became the first African-Americans to desegregate in the area. Governor Orval Faubus, like a huge majority of southern white citizens, was so against the idea of getting rid of segregation that he ordered the National Guard to not let them into the school. This left Elizabeth Eckford, one of the Little Rock Nine, in a vulnerable position. She was teased, taunted, and threatened by many as she walked towards a bus stop.

      Eventually, President Eisenhower stepped in and and ordered thousands of paratroopers into Little Rock to guard the students and keep them safe from harm. Too bad they couldn't shut the protesters up.

Lyndon Johnson's Great Society

Lyndon Johnson set out to transform the America into the Great Society. Johnson created programs, passed laws, and promoted reform in education, healthcare, housing, immigration, environmental issues, and in consumer protection. To boost financial aid for schools, Johnson passed The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, which provided $1 billion dollars towards buying school materials. To provide healthcare to the poor and elderly, two programs: Medicare and Medicaid, were established. As many families moved out of cities, Johnson created the Department of Housing and Urban Developement to deal with the growing population in urban areas by building low rent public housing. The Immigration Act of 1965 alloed non European immigrants to settle in the United States. In response to Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, Johnson passed the Water Quality Act of 1965, which required states to keep rivers clean. Finally, Johnson protected the consumer by requiring that labels on the package to be true and establishing safety standards. Although Johnson's Great Society was created decades ago, the impact of the reforms and programs is still felt today.

Tamara C.

The Great Society

Lyndon Baines Johnson succeeded to the presidency with a fierce ambition: to transform America into the Great Society. In May 1964 in a speech at the University of Michigan, Johnson spoke of the Great Society as, “ a place which honors creation for its own sake and for what it adds to the understanding of the race”. The two main goals of the Great Society were to end poverty and racial injustice and Johnson achieved these by passing 206 new measures by 1969, by the time he left office.

The LBJ administration focused on improving education, healthcare, housing, immigration, the environment, and consumer protection by passing many bills between 1965 and 1966. Johnson considered education “the key which can unlock the door to the Great Society”, and he had many bills passed that implemented more money into education. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 supplied more than $1 billion to help public schools purchase textbooks and new materials. Medicare and Medicaid greatly extended healthcare to the less privileged and American seniors. Congress also passed several bills that shifted the nation’s focus to urban areas from rural areas. For example, the Department of Housing and Urban Development was established to form federal housing programs that provided better housing for the poor. Immigration laws were also drastically changed. The Immigration Act of 1965 allowed many non-Europeans that had previously been barred from entering, immigrate to the United States. Johnson also began the environmental movement with the words, “There is no excuse…for chemical companies and oil refineries using our major rivers as pipelines for toxic wastes”. Lastly, many laws were passed to protect consumers. For example, the Highway Safety Act of 1966 was passed that required states to set up highway safety programs.

The Great Society was born with the passing of hundreds of bills that greatly improved the nation’s inequality.

Miranda Rights

The Miranda Rights originated in 1 963 when Ernesto Miranda was arrested and charged with kidnapping and rape. He signed a confession of guilt two hours after police interrogation. Miranda appealed to the supreme court because he had been coerced to give the confession; the police never informed him of right to an attorney.

The ruling stemmed from other similar cases. In the 1961 Mapp v. Ohio case, the court ruled that evidence produced from illegal searches violated the fourth amendment and could not be used as evidence. Another landmark case was the 1963 Gideon v. Wainwright, where the Courts ruled that a defendant has the right to an attorney and will be assigned an attorney should they not be able to afford one. Another notable case was in 1964 was the Escobedo v. Illinois. In this case, the Court's ruled that a suspect has the right to an attorney when interrogated by the police.

The Chief Justice Earl Warren played a major role in the decision basing his argument on th Fifth Amendment. The Fifth amendment states that an individual need not testify against himself. Warren postulated that when a subject is detained, they are inherently intimidated by the environment they are in. Due to this, he reasoned that any evidence produced wouldn't be impartial.

LBJ's Great Society

The United States 36th President Lyndon Baines Johnson (LBJ) presented a legislative plan that would stymie poverty and racial discrimination in May of 1964. Congress passed 206 of his proposed ideas due to Johnson’s persuasion in 1969. Some of his target zones were education, health, housing, immigration, environment and consumer protection. The LBJ administration suggested a myriad of bills to the Congress.

To improve education, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 was passed to give an aid of $1 billion to help schools buy books. Some other acts that were approved helped funded scholarships, give financial aid to talented artists and support educational broadcasting.
In addition, the LBJ administration developed some laws that gave assistance to those who lack health care such as Medicare, a programwhich helped lower the cost of medical insures for Americans who are 65 years old or older. Another program was Medicaid which allowed welfare recipients attain proper health insurance.
To help ameliorate housing, Congress approved of several plans that strengthen the American urban locations. Some examples are the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) establishment and low-rent private housing constructions for low-income families.
To increase the diversity of immigrants, the Immigration Act of 1965 was passed to stop all quotas that were established in 1924 that favored Europeans. Other acts that helped degrade the discrimination in America were the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Right Act of 1965.
The environment was also another factor that the LBJ administration focused on. The Water Quality Act of 1965 was passed to regulate rivers for purity and cleanliness. Other laws set guidelines for pollution and set aside land for national parks.
To protect the increasing number of American consumers, Congress passed some bills that help set the standards for products such as the Truth in Packing Act of 1966. These regulations were meant to help Americans feel more secure with their daily errands.

With all these regulations, the Great Society has improved the American living standards due to Johnson’s determination to end the injustice and impoverishment.

Jazreel

LBJ's Great Society

 

In May 1964, LBJ had summed up his vision for America in a phrase: the Great Society. He outlined a legislative program that would end poverty and racial injustice, he also added that he hoped that the legislative program would create not only a higher standard of living and equal opportunity, but also promote richer quality of life for all.

            During 1965 and 1966, the LBJ administration introduced a flurry of bills to Congress. Johnson considered education “the key which can unlock the door to the Great Society.” The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 provided more than $1 billion in federal aid to help public and parochial schools purchase textbooks and new library materials. LBJ and Congress changed Social Security by establishing Medicare and Medicaid. Medicare provided hospital insurance and low-cost medical insurance for almost every American age 65 and older. Medicaid extended health insurance to welfare recipients. Congress also made several important decisions that shifted the nation’s political power from rural to urban areas. By establishing the Department of Housing and Urban Development the administration was able to appropriate money to build 240,000 units of low-rent public housing and help low- and moderate-income families pay for better private housing. The Great Society also brought profound changes to the nation’s immigration laws. The Immigration Act of 1965 opened the door for many non-European immigrants to settle in the United States by ending quotas based on nationality. Consumer advocates also made headway. They convinced Congress to pass major safety laws, including a truth-in-packaging law that set standards for labeling consumer goods. Ralph Nader sharply criticized the U.S. automobile industry for ignoring safety concerns. His testimony helped persuade Congress to establish safety standards for automobiles and tires, these precautions also extended to food. Congress then passed the Wholesome Meat Act of 1967.

            Overall, the LBJ administration passed twenty-four Acts’ from 1964-1967 dramatically changing life in the United States. Issues such as poverty, education, discrimination, the environment, consumer advocacy, and the shape of cities around the country all improved for the better. People can argue whether or not the changes left by the LBJ administration left the nation better or worse, but no president in the post-WWII era has extended power and reach of the federal government more than LBJ.

The Movement of Migrant Workers

All across the country, migrant farm workers were harvesting fruits and vegetables every day. Migrant farm workers make up 10% of hired farm workers. Each part of the country had different climates. According to the season, migrant farm workers moved their whole family for the growing season.

The Pacific Coast:
The Pacific coast has a moderate climate which allows farmers to cultivate the land all year long. This means that migrant farmers don’t have to move each season. Most of the migrant workers work on fruit farms, either picking grapes and vegetables in California, or picking cherries, apples, and other crops in Washington.

The Midwest:
The Midwest has small streams to keep crops watered. Crops are smaller so workers must keep moving during the year to keep themselves employed. One family, for example, may pick strawberries in Michigan, pick tomatoes in Ohio, go back to Michigan to pick apples, then go to Texas for the winter.

The Atlantic Coast
Most workers in this region stay in Florida because of the year round work. However others travel north to New Hampshire and New York. Because this region has icy cold winters, workers here cannot find work during the winter seasons

Across the US, migrant workers were forced to move their families and their homes to match the different seasons of certain crops. Every except the pacific coast did not have year-round growing seasons. Therefore, workers on the pacific were able to stay in one place. These paths have changed slightly, however migrant workers in every region still exist today.
By Kevin

Election of 1960 and Camelot Years

In the 1960s, President Eisenhower's second term was about to end. And in about that time, the economy was downing. Soviet Union launched Sputnik I in 1958, development of long range missiles, U-2 incident, alignment of Cuba with the Soviet Union had made United States of America wonder who they'll choose as the next president. Those two candidates were, Democratic Senator John Kennedy of Massachusetts and Republican Vice President Richer M. Nixon.
Kennedy was a 43 year old, he would of been the second youngest president if he was elected, but he had a way into attracting the public.
Kennedy and Nixon were both the first presidential candidates to be on a television debate on September 26, 1960.
One of the major event occurred in October, were when Martin Luther King, Jr. and 33 other African-American demonstrators were sitting at a segregated lunch counter. King was sentenced to months of hard labor because of a minor traffic violation. Eisenhower administration and Nixon took no action. Although, Kennedy was sympathetic by calling Kin's wife, Coretta Scott King. Robert Kennedy, his brother and campaign manager went to the judge who sentenced King to release the civil rights leader on bail, which caught the African American community's attention.

In the Kennedy's Camelot years: Kennedy may have lacked in substance, but the public was fascinated by their family. JFK could read 1, 600 words a minute and the first lady was into fashion. Kennedy family reminded many of a modern0day Camelot, the mythical court of King Arthur.
He also surrounded himself in "the best and the brightest." McGeorge Bundy, a Harvard University dean, as national security adviser; Robert McNamara, president of Ford Motor Company, as secretary of defense; and Dean Rusk, president of the Rockefeller Foundation, as secretary of state. Most of all he relied on his 35-year-old brother Robert, who was the attorney general.

By Melody

Election of 1960 & Camelot Years

As John F Kennedy continued his campaign for presidency, he faced numerous challenges of the current time. The economy was in a recession. The launch of Spudnik sparked fears that American technology was falling behind that of the Soviets. JFK ran against opponent, Richard Nixon, in the closest race since 1884. Kennedy, however, used television and civil rights issues to tip the scale in his favor.

Although only 41 years old, Kennedy was handsome and charismatic. He proved that although he was Roman Catholic, he would still keep a distinct seperation between church and state. He also proved he was more of an expert on foregin affairs than Nixon himself. He spoke clearly and articulately and blew the viewers away in the first televisted presidential debate. He even gained favor of the African American popualtion when he phoned Martin Luther King's wife after King's arrest in October. Nixon took no action and expressed no public position. These votes helpe Kennedy carry key states in the Midwest and South.
Kennedy was elected in Novemenber of 1960. His inaugration set the tone for a new era at the White House: one of grace, elegance, and wit. Kennedy frequently appeared on television and the press loved his charm and wit. The new first family also fascinated Americans. They all wanted follow in their shoes. For example, after learning JFK could read 1,600 words a minute, thousands signed up for speed reading classes. The public was also captivated by the first lady's sense of style. The Kennedy White House became a modern-day Camelot.\

The Great Society: Fumimaro Kobayashi Period C

In My of 1964, the then president of the United States, Lyndon B. Johnson, proposed a program that would help improve the american society. It was aimed to end poverty, end racila injustice, promote equal opportunity, and promote a richer quality of life for all.
The first program was in education. Between 1965 to 1966, he introduced a series of bills that promoted education in the country. An example would ne the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. Another program was in healthcare. The president and congress established medicare and medicaid. This allowed many previously uninsured people to recieve healthcare with little or no payment. Another program was in housing. He decided on multiple ideas that gave power to the urban areas. One such decision was to create many houses for moderate-income families, and establishing the Department of Housing and Urban Development. Another program was about Immigration. Previously, the ethnic groups that were allowed to come to the US were limited. There were discriminations when it came to arriving in the US. Thus the Immigration Act of 1965, that allowed no restrictions based on nationality, was established. Another step Lyndon Johnson took was a decision for the enviroment. He proposed many decisions to clean waste and debris from all around the country. An example would be the Water Quality Act of 1965, this required states to clean up its rivers. One final program was based on cosumer protection. New laws and bills were passed that allowed major-safetylaws, such as setting requirements for labeling goods, to be passed. In conclusion, Lyndon B. Johnson was a dreamer that helped promote various types of great programs that still help and affect our life today.

Crises in Berlin and Cuba

The Bay of Pigs:

Fresh into his administration, young president Kennedy was forced into action when he was notified of a clandestine operation planned by President Eisenhower to overthrow the dictatorship in Cuba. This invasion, now known as the “Bay of Pigs” fiasco, consisted of over 1,400 Cuban Exiles, trained by the CIA in the United States, in a desperate attempt to overthrow an unsavory tyrant, Fidel Castro.

The initial plan for the operation consisted of several air assaults and deception flights by the American Air Force against several Cuban airfields and military hotspots. Among the bombed targets were the airfield at San Antonio de los Banos and the Antonio Maceo International Airport at Santiago De Cuba. Shortly after the air raids, the principal invasion was supposed to commence. On the 17th of April, 1961, two CIA agents headed a force of four transport ships, laden with Cuban exiles, into the Bay of Pigs. This invasion did not go as planned, however, when the Cuban militia discovered the invasion force and alerted the rest of the Army. After several days of brutal fighting, over 200 of the Cuban exiles were killed and about 1,201 were captured. These casualties compromised the majority of the invasion force. The injuries done to the Cuban army, on the other hand, were much more extensive; between 4,000 and 5,000 militants and armed civilians were killed, missing, or wounded. This crisis was humiliating both politically and physically to the White House, especially to young President Kennedy. However, he chose to accept responsibility for his wrongdoings and this candor essentially saved him from a major public relations nightmare. In fact, he remarked, "The more I screw up, they more the American People love me."

The Berlin Wall:
The months after World War II had left the people of Germany devastated. Their economy was broken, their government strictly controlled by the Allies, and their capital was split in four. The four sections of Berlin were controlled by the Russians, Americans, the British, and the French. To make steps towards peace, the U.S., France, and Great Britain decided to unify their respective "zones" into one area they called West Berlin. The Russian zone therefore became known as "East Berlin". While they were supposed to be equal, in both money and power, conditions in East Berlin could not have been more different than those in its counterpart. An exceedingly high number of refugees fled from East to West Berlin as Russia, in need of more resources to fund its own reconstruction, stripped East Berlin of everything valuable and sent it back to the Motherland. Talks about unifying Germany were stonewalled by the Russian Premier Nikita Kruschev and the American President Kennedy.

In a bold move, Kruschev ordered his armed forces stationed in Berlin to shut down all border crossings between East and West Berlin and to not allow any refugees without express consent from the Russian government to pass.

"The presence in Berlin of an open and essentially uncontrolled border between the socialist and capitalist worlds unwittingly prompts the population to make a comparison between both parts of the city, which unfortunately, does not always turn out in favor of the Democratic [East] Berlin." - Soviet East German ambassador Mikhail Pervukhin

The above statement was given by the Russians as the premier reason as to the lockdown. Several days later, in October 1961, Soviet and American tanks converged on a German border crossing checkpoint known as "Checkpoint Charlie". The crisis began when West German border officials disputed the East German officials' right to inspect the papers of an American diplomat crossing over into East Germany. While aggression was high, the standoff ended peacefully on October 28,1961.

Nevertheless, the Berlin Wall was increasingly fortified. It went from a simple barbed wire fence to an enormous monstrosity of concrete and brick, constantly guarded by East German border control officials, armed with automatic rifles. However, people did try and escape. It has been rumored that there were over 5,000 Escape attempts, each growing increasingly more elaborate than the previous one. A particularly famous escape attempt consisted of a modified sports car driving under a metal bar placed across the road to prevent people speeding. The drivers simply lay flat and kept on driving as the metal bar took off the windshield and the roof of the car. Up to four people could escape in such a fashion.

The Berlin Wall was not torn down until after a particularly poignant speech by President Reagan at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin. President Reagan commented:

"We welcome change and openness; for we believe that freedom and security go together, that the advance of human liberty can only strengthen the cause of world peace. There is one sign the Soviets can make that would be unmistakable, that would advance dramatically the cause of freedom and peace. General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization, come here to this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!" - President Reagan

-- Alex Doundakov